BIOCHEMISTRY, BIOMEDICINE & PHARMACEUTICS

Angiotensin II Receptor Blockers (ARBs) are a class of medications commonly used to treat hypertension (high blood pressure). They work by targeting the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS), a regulatory system that plays a significant role in blood pressure control. Here's how ARBs work to treat hypertension: Blockade of Angiotensin II Receptors: ARBs work by blocking the action of angiotensin II at its receptors, specifically the angiotensin II type 1 receptors (AT1 receptors). Angiotensin II is a potent vasoconstrictor, meaning it causes blood vessels to narrow. By inhibiting the effects of angiotensin II, ARBs prevent blood vessels from constricting, leading to vasodilation (widening of the blood vessels). Vasodilation: The vasodilation induced by ARBs results in a reduction in peripheral vascular resistance. With less resistance to blood flow, blood can move more easily through the blood vessels. As a consequence, the heart does not have to work as hard to pump blood, a...

Beta-blockers are a class of medications commonly prescribed to reduce hypertension (high blood pressure). They work by affecting the sympathetic nervous system and specific receptors in the body, primarily beta-adrenergic receptors. Here's how beta-blockers reduce hypertension: Decreasing Heart Rate: Beta-blockers block the action of adrenaline (epinephrine) and other similar hormones on beta-adrenergic receptors in the heart. By doing so, they reduce the heart rate. A slower heart rate means that the heart pumps blood with less force and less frequently, resulting in decreased cardiac output. This reduction in cardiac output leads to a decrease in blood pressure. Reducing Contractility: Beta-blockers also reduce the force of contraction of the heart muscle. This effect, known as negative inotropy, means that the heart muscle contracts less forcefully with each beat. As a result, the heart pumps out less blood with each beat, leading to a decrease in stroke volume (the amount of b...

Diuretics are a class of medications commonly used to reduce hypertension (high blood pressure). They promote the removal of excess sodium and water from the body, which leads to several physiological changes that ultimately help lower blood pressure. Here's how diuretics reduce hypertension: Reducing Blood Volume:   Diuretics primarily act on the kidneys by increasing the excretion of sodium and water in the urine. By doing so, they reduce the total volume of blood circulating in the body. When there is less blood volume, there is less pressure against the walls of the blood vessels, which leads to a decrease in blood pressure. Decreasing Cardiac Output: As the blood volume decreases, the amount of blood that the heart pumps with each beat (stroke volume) also decreases. This reduction in stroke volume leads to a decrease in cardiac output, which is the amount of blood the heart pumps per minute. When cardiac output decreases, it results in a lower pressure in the arteries, contr...

Cardiovascular physiology is the study of the cardiovascular system and its function in circulating blood throughout the body. The cardiovascular system consists of the heart, blood vessels (arteries, veins, and capillaries), and blood. It plays a crucial role in supplying oxygen, nutrients, hormones, and other vital substances to tissues and organs while removing waste products. 1. Which of the following chambers of the heart receives oxygenated blood?  a) Left atrium     b) Left ventricle  c) Right atrium  d) Right ventricle 2. Which of the following blood vessels carries deoxygenated blood back to the heart?  a) Arteries  b) Capillaries c) Veins      d) Lymphatic vessels 3. What is the main function of red blood cells in the cardiovascular system?  a) Fighting infection  b) Filtering waste products c) Initiating blood clotting  d) Carrying oxygen       4. What is cardiac output (CO)? a) The amou...